Snake Rescue Manual: Guidelines on Snake Rescue, Snakebite Management, and Community Education for Snake Conservation
Soham Mukherjee
Life Science Education Trust, Bengaluru, India; NAJA India, Ahmedabad
Abstract
Human-Snake conflict (HSC) is a complex and pervasive problem that occurs wherever snakes and people share the same habitat. Lack of information, ignorance by the masses and absence of snakebite prevention measures results in around 2100 annual deaths in Gujarat while the national mortality figure is as high as 58,000. While the need to improve the quality of anti-venom serum and post bite clinical management is high priority, prevention of bites can play a vital role in bringing down the mortality rates. Snakes and people often need to be rescued from certain situations especially when the former comes near people’s houses and backyards, especially in rural areas. Since snake capture is a specialised activity and is often potentially dangerous in case of venomous shakes, it requires systematic training and experience. Proper knowledge to administer the right first aid can very well save a limb and even a life. Individuals who are interested in this issue need to be well trained in all relevant aspects. This manual is intended for experienced snake handlers, not for beginners.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS 2
Why rescue snakes? 2
Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 3
Most common rescue scenarios 4
Role of a Snake Rescuer 5
Identification 6
Common identification mistakes 7
Snake rescue kit 8
Safety instructions to the caller 9
Safe capture using shake hooks and bagger 10
Handling tips for venomous and non-venomous snakes 12
Safe transportation 13
Release protocol 13
Data collection (non-invasive) 14
Safety tips for handler 15
Safety tips for residents 15
Snakebites in India 16
Snakebite management 17
Community education — an important role of a snake rescuer 21
References 24
Why rescue snakes?
Snakes are not restricted to forested areas; their highly adaptive nature allows them to continue survival in the constantly changing environment. We do influence these changes a lot, be it creating farmlands around the villages or urbanisation. Most snakes lose out to these changes as they need certain special conditions to survive, but there are some species that do very well in and around human habitation. As long as there is a decent prey-base available, species like spectacled cobras, Russell’s vipers, common kraits, rat snakes, wolf snakes, chequered keelbacks, etc. thrive amongst us.
The so-called snake-human conflict arises as we unknowingly encroach various habitats that host snake populations and don’t emphasise on adjusting our way of living in the presence of potentially dangerous animals (in case of venomous snakes). Lack of information, ignorance by the masses and unnecessary fear (Coelho et al, 2019) creates the need to rescue snakes. Most rescues are carried out to save the snakes from immediate threats i.e. scared humans who will kill the ‘nuisance’ snake if not removed from their property (Nonga & Haruna, 2015) and to ensure its survival, though the initial distress call is the result of human safety concerns. Since snake capture is a specialised activity and is often potentially dangerous in case of venomous snakes (Mirtschin et al., 2017). Unfortunately, this creates a heroism factor – the driving factor for several snake rescuers!
Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972
It is important to understand the law before undertaking any activity involving wildlife native to India. All Indian fauna is protected under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. None of the native snake species can be collected, rescued, kept, treated, transported or exported without the permission of the relevant Forest Department (WPA, 1972). Wild fauna is protected under different schedules wherein Schedule | is given the highest level of protection.
The snake species protected under Schedule | are as follows:
Pythons (Genus Python) P. m. molurus, P. m. bivittatus, P. reticulatus Indian egg-eating snake Elachistodon westermanni The P. molurus ssp. (Rock Pythons) is now found in restricted areas but is in safe numbers in its range. The P. reticulatus (Reticulated Python) is only found in the Nicobars where it is uncommon (Whitaker & Captain, 2004). The Elachistodon westermanni (Indian Egg-Eating Snake) was only known from a few specimens and was not seen since the early 1900s until its rediscovery in Maharashtra (Captain et al., 2005), and subsequent reports its presence in Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Karnataka, etc. (Kalki & Gowda, 2021).
Schedule Il offers second highest protection. The species covered under this schedule are as follows:
Indian rat snake Ptyas mucosa
Olive keelback water snake Atretium schistosum
Cobras (Genus Naja) N. naja, N. kaouthia, N. oxiana, N. sagittifera
Russell’s viper Dabioa russellii
Checkered keelback Xenochrophis piscator
Dog-faced water snake Cerberus rhynchops
King cobra Ophiophagus hannah
O. Hannah and N. sagittifera are protected because of their rarity. Rest of the species are common but were given protection to control the snakeskin trade. Offenders involving Schedules | & II are punishable by 1 to 6 years in jail and a fine.
The rest of the species are protected under Schedule IV and offenders are punishable by fine up to Rs.25,000/- and / or imprisonment for up to 3 years. Individual snake rescuers must make sure to have the necessary permits from their respective forest departments.
Most common rescue scenarios
The rescue scenarios vary from underground storerooms to restaurant kitchens on the 6th floor. Most common scenarios are presented below:
A lot of conflict can be avoided using simple things like not walking barefoot, not walking in or putting hand in vegetated areas and using a torch at night!
Role of a Snake Rescuer
— To save the snake from immediate threat.
— To ensure its survival after release.
— To be safe themselves.
— To consider the welfare during the process of rescue, handling, transport, and release.
— To ensure the safety of the people around.
— Education: disseminating correct information and trying to blast the myths associated with snakes whenever on a rescue.
— Suggest ways to minimise contact with snakes around their properties.
The first reaction to a ‘snake call’ is to quickly go and take the snake out of the dangerous situation. For years we have been catching snakes from one place and releasing them far away from ‘human’ habitation. One thing that we have been missing out is that the actual habitat is the place from where the snake is captured! We unknowingly translocate the snakes, giving them a slow death (Cornelis et al, 2021). This has now been confirmed through several radio telemetry studies around the world (Barve et al., 2013; Reinert & Rupert Jr, 1999; Wolfe et al., 2018). With so many recent updates in snake research and conservation initiatives, rescuers should start adapting to strategies that are best for snake’s welfare. Rescuers should now change from traditional practices to science that will actually benefit the snakes, the people, and the ecosystems they share.
Identification
Identification of common Indian snakes while on a rescue call can be done by using a suitable combination of the following factors:
Overall appearance, head shape, colouration, features of the scales, and behaviour.
Common identification mistakes
Our mind is prone to mistakes, especially in an excited state. We sometimes tend to miss out on very obvious factors. Below are some of the instances wherein mistakes are made some of these have proved to be fatal
Extremely similar looking species. People have been bitten by venomous species while attempting to handle the snakes thinking they were non-venomous snakes. Some have sadly been fatal mistakes. When only a small part of the shake is visible. When the snake is covered in mud or other material. When lighting is poor. When a rescuer attempts handling in an intoxicated state. When a rescuer attempts handling right after coming in from bright sunlight. Take a minute to let your eyes adjust to the light before you start handling!
Snake rescue kit
It is important to be prepared for any eventuality. Make sure you have your kit ready at all times. A kit must have the following:
Snake hook / snake stick
At least two snake bags (cotton, dark colored)
Bagger system
Torch
Mobile phone
Crepe bandages (4-5 rolls of more than 5 cms. wide)
Aerated plastic box with lockable clip-on lid (for venomous snakes)
Towel (wet towel should be wrapped around the plastic box when
transporting in summers)
A snake rescue operation is a challenging exercise that involves capturing a snake while managing people, emotions and adrenaline. It is therefore advisable to have a well-trained assistant to help keep the situation calm. Of the calls being routed through an organisation, the concerned group must keep at least two kits ready at all times.
Safety instructions to the caller
On receiving a rescue call, the rescuer must ask the following questions: Is the snake still there? Where is it? Ask for a brief description of the snake pertaining to its colouration and approximate length.
The following instructions should be given to the caller:
Do not go anywhere near the snake or try to catch it, move it or Kill it. Do not allow people to gather around the snake. Keep an eye on the snake until the rescuer gets there. Inform the rescuer if the snake escapes before the rescuer arrives.
Safe capture using snake hooks and bagger
When handling any live animal, it is always important to keep two safety issues in mind: first is the safety of the handler, and second is the safety and welfare of the animal itself.
Handling tips for venomous and non-venomous snakes
Repeating again: When handling any live animal, it is always important to keep two safety issues in mind: first is the safety of the handler, and second is the safety and welfare of the animal itself. Great care is needed when handling / restraining snakes, as they can be easily injured, and some species can easily be traumatised. While handling snakes, it is important to ensure that they are comfortable. Just because a non-venomous snake does not pose a serious threat, one cannot afford to be casual while handling. Some snakes are highly responsive to movement. Others do not respond so obviously. As a snake handler, it is crucial when considering a snake’s comfort to take in aspects of its behaviours and natural history. For example, is it slender and arboreal or stocky and terrestrial? The young of any species tend to be more reactive than the adults of that species so take extra care when handling. Remember, a snake will see you as a predator. Be calm. Keep the snake comfortable and supported. No sudden movements (including those made by onlookers).
Handling does not mean ‘by hand’! Professional tools such as snake hooks, bagging systems, securable hide boxes and restraint tubes are of great help. Very often venomous snakes can be efficiently secured without even touching them by hand. Good safe handling techniques will protect both the handler and the shake from unnecessary risk and stress. Pinning and grabbing a snake behind the head should generally be avoided whenever possible because of the health risk to the animal. Vipers in particular have very fragile necks and weak supporting muscles and are at high risk of injuring themselves when forcibly restrained.
Safe transportation
Once the snake is captured and put inside the box, it should be carefully lifted to the vehicle as it is still subject to injuries due to insensitive handling. While transporting a snake, it is preferable to use a vehicle that has enough storage space. Once the snake is secure, the driver should make sure that there are minimum shocks while travelling. The rescuer must also keep in mind the atmospheric temperature while transporting. As snakes are ectothermic, extreme heat can cause death (Gangloff & Telemeco, 2018). It is important to keep the shake cool. This could be easily achieved by wrapping a wet towel or cloth around the box. In a situation like this, make sure that the ventilation holes are on top of the box. If the snake is being transported on a two-wheeler, do not keep it in the storage space as it tends to heat up.
Release protocol
It is now established that translocated snakes have very little chance of survival (Cornelis et al., 2021). Recent studies have shown that snakes build a very strong relation with the physical environment that they grow up in. They know where to go for water, a safe and humid place to shed skin, different prey items as per season, thermoregulation, etc. They use these resources very regularly (Barve et al., 2013). When an adult snake that is used to a certain place is translocated to another area, it is unable to understand anything and gets into a mode of getting back to its known home-range. Snakes don’t have good homing instincts and hence randomly start roaming around. In this mode their brain gets wired to only go back to their home-range and if they are translocated far away, it becomes impossible for them to do so (Pittman et al, 2014). Many end up dying of starvation, getting killed by predators and getting into conflicts with humans (Corbit & Hayes, 2022). The other issue with relocation is that the place chosen for their release is usually chosen because it looks right and balanced (Shine & Koenig, 2001). When these snakes are released (sometimes more than a hundred every week) it creates a constant pressure on the existing ecosystem (Vyas, 2013). Releasing so many external predators is never good for any ecosystem. Also, there is a greater risk of introducing harmful pathogens that can spread diseases to the existing wild population.
Harmless snakes like rat snakes, chequered keelbacks, wolf snakes, boas, etc. should be encouraged to stay back if they are found in gardens, houses with big backyards, open ground, etc. since they pose no threat. If these snakes are caught from inside the house, they can simply be left outside if the owners can be convinced about the complete harmlessness. If the callers do not agree, the shakes may be released in favourable plots as close as possible to the site of capture.
Venomous snakes can be very tricky. Majority of people will not agree to release the snakes back. Release sites need to be identified from where the snakes can move back eventually. Yes, rescuing snake snakes from these places will be an on-going activity and that is why it is important to train local people so that they do not have to depend on ‘specialised’ rescuers. Please remember, translocation will more likely kill a rescued snake and will harm the ecosystem and is thus discouraged henceforth.
Data collection (non-invasive)
One of the biggest contributions to science can be the data gathered during snake rescues. Scientists spend months, sometimes years collecting accurate baseline data for various research works. Snake rescuers can help in a big way, especially with distribution and abundance data of the local snake species. A simple format can be easily used to do the same. A standard format used by snake rescuers around the country is provided below. It only takes 2 minutes to fill each rescue data and can then be contributed to relevant scientists and organisations. Remember most shake rescuers will not fol- low this, but now is your chance to stand out!
Standard data sheet for snake rescue:
Species Date Climatic Estimated Habitat / PIN PIN code Distance from rescue and condition age/size microhabitat code of of to release time rescue release site Even if you are unable to maintain your data in the above format, we encourage you to develop a format that you are comfortable with. Data maintenance is of great importance for any scientific analysis. It also helps you to measure your contribution towards the conservation of snakes.
Safety tips for handler
Before handling reptiles, it is necessary to accumulate as much information as possible on the behavioural biology of the species. No matter how tame they may seem to be, snakes are still wild animals. As such, they may not react the way we expect they would. Handling stress is an area that is often overlooked or even ignored. In fact, being physically picked up and/or restrained may be extremely stressful to snakes. For this reason, it evokes the same physiological and behavioural responses as threats from a natural predator.
Snakes should always be approached in a calm, deliberate and gentle manner. Wearing shoes and denim trousers is always advised to minimise chances of a snakebite.
When you are ‘tailing’ the snake, make sure you are not holding from the tip of the tail as it can be extremely painful for snakes and the tip can break of some heavy bodied active species like chequered keelback (Fowlea piscator) and sometimes common krait (B caeruleus) especially when they are trying to wiggle out. Rough handling and injury to snakes increases chances of a snakebite.
Safety tips for residents
One of the most sought advice by the residents of and around the rescue site is ‘how to stop snakes from coming in?’. Well, there is no way of stopping snakes from coming into their premises, but there are a few things that can be done to minimise the encounters. This must be told very clearly to them as it is best to sensitise them and prepare them to be able to deal with the situation.
Here are a few safety tips that you can suggest to residents living in high snake density areas:
— Manage your solid waste management – the biggest source of prey items like rodents, insects, and frogs/toads. This constant food supply attracts snakes.
— Do not walk around barefoot outside your side, especially in areas with leaf llitter and dry grass. Take great care when clearing vegetation, raking dry leaves in your garden. Avoid using hands directly.
— Use a torch/flashlight at night. Manage your storerooms and backyard properly. Keep it free of junk and scrap materials – a good shelter for snakes.
If you see a shake, do nothing. Let it go. Do not try to pick it up or kill it. If a snake has entered your premises, call trained snake rescuers.
Snakebites in India
India’s first exhaustive study on annual snakebite deaths has revealed the annual death figures to be as high as 46,000 while the total number of annual snakebites are estimated to be around 14 lacs (bite to death ratio 64:1) (Mohapatra et al., 2011). The estimated total national snakebite deaths constitute about 5% of all injury deaths and nearly 0.5% of all deaths in India. It is more than 30-fold higher than the number declared from earlier official hospital returns. Recently, the annual snakebite mortality rate has been estimated to be around 58,000 (Suraweera et al., 2020). The underreporting of snake bite deaths has several possible causes. Most importantly, it is well known that many patients are treated and die outside health facilities — especially in rural areas.
Despite the intensity of the issue, snakebite has been ignored in our country. It has only recently been declared a neglected disease. In addition to the mortality, the damage caused by snakebite in the country is compounded by the morbidity through loss of limbs or life functions, causing huge social and economic stress on victims and their families.
The high human population density, combined with the nature of work and activity in much of rural India (agriculture and physical work) brings people in contact with venomous shakes on a regular basis. The only possible avenue of mitigation here is education. We need to constantly remind people about snakebite prevention, proper first aid and treatment so that we can reduce this number drastically.
In March 2014, a State Level Task Force for Snakebite Management was constituted by the Government of Gujarat to frame clinical treatment guidelines, improve quality of treatment in case of snakebite, upgrade treatment protocols to incorporate in Standard Treatment Guidelines and prepare literature focusing on prevention measures through community education.
Snakebite management
The fundamentals of first aid
Prior to the patient’s arrival at a dispensary or hospital, initial care is administered immediately or shortly after the bite. It can be administered by the victim or by anyone present and able. Unfortunately, the majority of traditional, common, accessible, and inexpensive first-aid methods have proven to be ineffective or even harmful. These include making local incisions or pricks/punctures at the site of the bite or in the bitten limb, attempting to suction the venom out of the wound, using (black) snake stones, tying tight bands (tourniquets) around the limb, administering electric shock, topical instillation or application of chemicals, herbs, or ice packs, and electric shock. People in the area may have a great deal of faith in traditional (herbal) treatments, but they must not be permitted to delay medical treatment or cause harm (WHO, 2016).
Attempt to delay venom absorption in the body.
Save the patient’s life and avoid complications before he or she can receive medical care.
Handle any distressing or dangerous early envenoming symptoms.
Arrange for the patient’s transportation to a location where they can receive medical care.
Most importantly, aim to cause no harm.
Conventionally tight (arterial) tourniquets and pressure bandages are not recommended.
These needed to be wrapped tightly around the upper portion of the limb in order to obstruct the peripheral pulse. This procedure can be very painful and dangerous if the tourniquet or bandage is left on for an extended period of time (more than 40 minutes), as the limb may suffer from ischaemia. Many gangrenous limbs often leading to amputation have been caused by tourniquets.
If the victim however arrives with them in place, wait to release them until the patient is receiving hospital care, resuscitation equipment is available, and ASVS treatment has begun.
Snakebite First Aid
It’s important to remember that snakes don’t bite on the spur of the moment. They are typically coerced into biting. The good news is that snakes must conserve their venom because it has evolved as a mechanism for subduing prey. The majority of shakebites occur when the snake is unintentionally provoked or threatened. If you find yourself in a snakebite situation, following simple protocol and remaining calm could save the victim’s limb or even life.
Firstly, Things NOT to Do:
Do not suck out venom
Do not make incision to bleed out venom
Do not go to traditional healers or anything similar
Do not try out home remedies
Do not apply tourniquets
Do not apply ice
Do not clean out the bitten part
Do not try to catch/kill the snake
All the above activities either do not work or are extremely dangerous to perform. In fact, they will do more harm than good.
Following is what you should do:
Make sure the victim and others are at a safe distance away from the snake; do not attempt to capture the snake, get the victim and others away from the snake.
Try to memorise the snake’s appearance (from a safe distance).
Remove watches / rings / other jewellery from the bitten part; swelling sets in rapidly after bite and any such objects can obstruct blood flow resulting in dangerous tissue damage.
Keep the victim calm and reassured, do not panic, as trivial as it may sound, it makes every- thing from the victim’s ability to deal with the situation to your ability to make decisions better.
Try to immobilise the bitten limb; do not make the victim run and avoid making him/her walk if possible. Any movement or muscular contraction promotes venom absorption into the bloodstream and lymphatics. Avoid interfering with the bite wound in any way (including making cuts, rubbing, vigorous cleaning, massaging, or applying herbs or chemicals), as this could increase venom absorption, or worsen the local bleeding.
Do not waste any time and arrange for a quick transport to the nearest hospital treating snakebite cases, as safely and comfortably as possible
If possible, note the time of bite and progression of symptoms, describe the snake and the whole incident to the attending doctor, If your neighbourhood has a high density of snakes, it is advisable to prepare a shakebite protocol (plan of action in case of an emergency) best suited to you. This can simply be important to contact people and numbers who should be informed first, name / address of nearest hospital treating snakebites, best mode of transport and related details, name / contact no. of doctor, etc. Make sure all family members and friends understand their role in an emergency.
The above 4 species account for most snakebite deaths in India. Please be extra careful if you are around these.
In case of a snakebite, call 108* from your phone. The emergency response service will immediately dispatch an ambulance with trained paramedics.
Prevention is always better than cure:
— Education: Know your local snakes, know the sort of places where they like to live and hide, at what times of year, at what times of day/night or in what
kinds of weather they are most likely to be active.
— Be especially vigilant about snake bites after rains, during flooding, at harvest time and at night.
— Try to wear proper shoes or boots and long trousers, especially when walking in the dark or in undergrowth. Always check footwear before wearing them!
— Use a torch / lamp when walking at night.
— Avoid snakes as far as possible, including snakes performing for snake charmers. Never handle, threaten or attack a snake and never intentionally trap or corner a snake in an enclosed space.
In the house:
— Keep no livestock in the house, especially chickens, as snakes may come to hunt them. Food should be stored in rat-proof containers. Check houses for shakes on a regular basis and, if possible, avoid house construction that allows snakes to hide.
— Avoid sleeping on the ground if at all possible. If you must sleep on the ground, use a mosquito net that is tightly tucked beneath your mattress or sleeping mat.
In the yard:
— Try not to provide hiding places for snakes. Clear termite mounds, heaps of rubbish, building materials etc. from near the house.
— Do not have tree branches touching the house. Keep grass short or clear the ground around your house and clear low bushes in the vicinity so that shakes cannot hide close to the house.
— Keep your granary away from the house; it may attract rodents that snakes will hunt.
— Take great care when clearing vegetation, raking dry leaves outdoors.
— Use a light (torch or lamp) when you walk outside the house or visit the latrine at night.
In the rural areas:
— It is extremely dangerous to collect firewood at night. Avoid doing this at night.
— Watch where you walk, especially when walking in the dark or in undergrowth. Do not go bare- foot.
— Step on rocks or logs rather than straight over them; snakes may be lurking alongside.
— Avoid handling dead snakes, or snakes that appear to be dead. They can still inject venom!
— Keep young children away from areas known to be snake infested.
— Be cautious during the rainy season, as many snakebites occur during ploughing, planting, and harvesting.
— If you see a snake, do nothing; let it go. Do not try to pick it up or Kill it. Snakes prefer not to confront large animals such as humans so give them the chance to slither away.
Community education — an important role of a snake rescuer
A rescuer in action captivates onlookers with his or her skills and technique. As a result, they are in a powerful position that can be used to instil positive feelings toward snakes. The rescuer hence should be well-informed before taking on the role of conservationist. A few points that can be used as part of rescue education:
— Biology of the snake with emphasis on harmlessness in case of non-venomous shakes.
— Importance in nature and direct relevance to us humans giving the example of rodents’ impact on agricultural produce.
— Tips on how to minimise shake encounters.
— Tips on snakebite management and precautionary measures.
— Clarifying common myths.
— Issues regarding translocation.
Acknowledgements
References
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About the Author
Soham Mukherjee is a herpetologist and wildlife biologist who specialises in crocodiles and venomous shakes. He has worked as a full-time wildlife rehabilitator with a wide range of taxa, including reptiles, mammals, birds, and arachnids. He has worked on endangered species conservation management projects both in-situ and ex-situ. He is particularly interested in conservation breeding, behaviour and cognition, enrichment in captivity, and human-wildlife interactions. He has extensive experience in snakebite and human-crocodile conflict mitigation, and is a member of the IUCN-SSC Crocodile Specialist Group, Viper Specialist Group, and Snake Specialist Group. He currently works as a specialist consultant for zoos and conservation centres.
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